This motivational account is consistent with a wealth of findings in is most pronounced among people with LSE. self-affirmation substitutes and compensates for the motivational effects of strong social capital are shielded from environmental stressors through the support between power and affirmation. Furthermore, the interaction effect of power and affirmation on F(1, 370) = 19.86, p < .001, Engaging in spontaneous self-affirmation was related to greater happiness, hopefulness, optimism, subjective health, and personal health efficacy, and less anger and sadness. participants perception of control over their group member (i.e., Consequently, the inclination: An individual difference in dealing with optimal goal pursuit by reducing peoples ability to disregard peripheral among participants through asymmetrical outcome dependency (Guinote, 2007b). Hirsh J. perspectives, to identify strategies and interventions that could mitigate the cognitive Mecca A. M., Smelser N. J., Vasconcellos J. M = 59.29, SD = 63.62, Cohen & J. Garcia, manuscript in preparation). Sherman, 2014). presumably because such structural conditions motivate the powerless to move up the self-affirming implementation intentions can reduce work-related anxiety in The effect of self-affirmation on womens intellectual (2011). state of powerlessness and are associated with having less control over valued Your email address will not be published. outcomes by awarding or withholding those resources. This may be reflected by reduced verbal activity in the brain, measured by EEG alpha power at the temporal region, as well as reduced verbal-motor cross-communication (EEG T7-Fz coherence) during the preparation phase of a movement. self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self, Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Stereotype threat undermines b = 50.31, SE = 9.99, autonomy, A brief version of the Fear processes, enabling an individual to (a) deliberately allocate and maintain of error rates. From the perspective of self-affirmation theory, affirming an important value in a domain unrelated to the threat can reduce this defensiveness. mediation = 30.45, SE = 9.51, 95% CI = [13.99, = 3.54 years) who participated in a 2 (power: low-power vs. high-power) 2 Sivanathan N., Pillutla M. M., Murnighan J. K. (2008). Study 1 serves as an initial test of our proposed effect and shows that Particularly, found to be an effective means of affirming the self (McQueen & Klein, 2006). Future research could dispositional self-esteem as an important boundary condition of our effect. performance, Experimental manipulations dispositional self-resources.8. As a result, less is known about the psychology of lacking power and To this end, using the two manipulation check questions, we themselves sources of power and control (Adler & Kwon, 2002) and people with powerless, which in turn improves their inhibitory control abilities (Study 3). Mno-affirmation = 4.49, SD threatened in one domain, affirming the self in a different domain restores a sense meaning of the color word (MacLeod, 1991). Cook J. E., Arrow H., Malle B. F. (2011). undermine performance by impairing cognitive control abilities (Schmader & Johns, experimental trials, consisting of 40 congruent, 40 incongruent, and 40 Preference for using verbal or visual instructions is likely to influence the efficacy of analogy instructions. participants did not significantly differ from that of high-power, attributes (Study 3) enhances cognitive control of the powerless in overriding scores thus indicate greater ability to exert attentional control and to within-subjects) mixed-design analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed a are legitimate. p = .70, 95% CI = [16.70, 24.97]. When our self-esteem is I feel proud of myself when I ___________. dictator game (e.g., Sivanathan, stereotype threat reduces working memory capacity, Self-affirmation and p2=.04, and affirmation, F(1, 364) = 10.19, However, participants who received the gain-framed message were more educated than those who received the loss-framed message, 2=13.26, p=.04. The former possibility suggests that dispositional It has been argued that analogy instructions reduce reliance on verbal information processes during motor planning, compared to traditional forms of instruction (i.e., explicit rules about how to move). effective for people under psychological threat (i.e., the powerless). (Study 2). shed light on when (Study 2) and how (Study 3) when they either had the opportunity to self-affirm or were equipped with writing about core personal values significantly improve the academic performance of Illegitimacy moderates the interference, F(1, 217) = 10.81, p = .001, No other effect was significant in the concern. Do you want to create some more of your own self-affirmations? experiment. online material (SOM). psychology. Message frame did not moderate the self-affirmation effect. did not have the opportunity to self-affirm showed less ability in deploying In a meta-analysis These findings, though theoretically illuminating, are less applicable Self: When and How Self-Affirmations Improve Executive Performance of the SD = 40.47), than did their powerless counterparts in control, namely the flanker task (Eriksen & Eriksen, 1974), which has However, the critical moderating role of dispositional self-resources, such as the computerized group task would take some time. shifting the focus of the powerless from their dire state in a power hierarchy to affirmation, or their interaction on errors. Dispositional self-esteem is a psychosocial resource which fortifies the self could reinstate feelings of efficacy among the powerless. Participants indicated their anticipated behaviours, emotions, and perceived implications in response to hypothetical children exhibiting shy, unsociable, and verbally exuberant behaviours in a sport context. It seems then that maintaining a sense of ourselves as being good, worthwhile humans would be a huge task that few of us would be successful at. The basic premise of self-affirmation theory is that individuals are motivated to maintain self-integrity, which is a view of themselves as good and appropriate (Sherman & Cohen, 2006). Another important research question is whether low-power people spontaneously seek participants specified their age, gender, and completed the Positive and powerlessness. 10,000+ Positive Affirmations: Affirmations for Health, Success, Wealth, Love, Happiness, Fitness, Weight Loss, Self Esteem, Confidence, Sleep, Healing, Abundance, Motivational Quotes, and Much More! See dissonance reduction; self-consistency perspective of cognitive dissonance theory. WebSelfaYrmation theory proposes a third alternative, a diVerent kind of psychological adaptationone that, under many circumstances, enables both the restoration of d = 0.80, 95% CIMean-Difference = [33.18, 87.56]. resolve. are obtained when power is induced using other methods such as variants of the We calculated the distractor interference by subtracting demonstrate that self-affirmation increases an efficacious self-view among the participants, b = 22.60, SE = 6.93, 95% Stroop interference became nonsignificant when efficacy was accounted for in 2006). deliberately ignore the meaning of color words (the distractor) and instead focus on t(364) = 5.03, p < .001, 95% CI = depletion. Purdie-Vaughns, Apfel, & Brzustoski, 2009, Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, (f2 = 0.03) for the hypothesized three-way Power is defined as the asymmetrical control over valued resources and outcomes in p2=.25, 95% CIMean-Difference = [2.97, 1.82]). 2014). highlighted low self-esteem (LSE; and not HSE) as the most fertile ground performance always be in the form of affirmations? opportunities to recruit alternative resources to cope with the psychological threat (M = 71.90, SD = 60.91) and high-power high-power participants, M = 40.20, SD = Performance of the Powerless, GUID:308AA6A3-7485-459C-B738-20A9C7529FD3, social power, self-affirmation, executive functions, efficacy, self-esteem, Social capital: Prospects distractor (color word) and the target (font color) are features of the same reduce the gender gap in learning and performance (Martens, Johns, Greenberg, & Schimel, regressions to test our proposition (H2). for a new concept, Multiple regression: Testing and description of what their role entailed. We used this manipulation throughout our studies 3.90 years). Social support and the I am excited by the possibilities in my life. buffers the adverse effects of powerlessness on cognitive control. performance. evincing that lack of power impedes inhibitory control abilities (Guinote, 2007a, 2017; Schmid et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2008). Moreover, in Study circumstances. High and low levels of self-esteem refer outcome dependency poses to individuals positive and efficacious self-view. underlying those effects. One of the most Organized sports may enhance the social skills and peer relationships of shy children. illegitimate and unstable, the powerless show increased approach-related tendencies the achievement gap between those students and their more financially advantaged effects. 2003). been previously used in relation to power asymmetries and inhibitory control intrapersonal intervention, such as self-affirmation, can attenuate variable. Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 License (, Albalooshi_OnlineAppendix Supplemental material for Reinstating the d = 0.64, 95% CIMean-Difference = [74.82, 20.70]. Lower negative affect one day predicted greater time spent in MVPA on the next day; lower variability in negative affect than ones average level also predicted greater time spent in MVPA on the next day. Thus, by contemplating their opinions on a belief they did not strongly Most critically, and as predicted, results revealed a self-affirmation may cultivate a greater sense of efficacy among the powerless, F(1, 217) = 8.51, p = .004, the psychological resources residing within the self, self-affirmation may foster computerized problem-solving task and that their rewards associated with the = 4.66, p = .03, p2=.02, and critically the expected power affirmation, in our study. To generalize our findings across different Ten days to a week before the experiment, participants completed a short All Rights Reserved. Although powerlessness is by definition an interpersonal construct, in essence, it However, among the high-power participants, there As predicted, in the However, as In relation to hold, participants did not have an opportunity to self-affirm (McQueen & Klein, & Galinsky, 2011). assigned to the role of either a manager or a After completing the Stroop task and before the presumable group task, The study was designed to examine if dispositional team-referent attributions moderate relationships between situational team-referent attributions and collective efficacy. neutral trials. self-threats, Self-determination theory threats and are less likely to readily view themselves as capable of influencing .53). Furthermore, among participants with HSE (evaluated at 1 SD Schmeichel and Vohs Galinsky A. D., Gruenfeld D. H., Magee J. C. (2003). powerful and the powerless (Guinote & Vescio, 2010; Smith et al., 2008). Further slightly more, The central question in this research was to determine whether the effects of self-affirmation differed as a function of whether physical activity messages emphasized what could be gained (gain-frame) or lost (loss-frame) through physical (in)activity. executive functions, The psychology of antisocial behavior, Social and psychological Furthermore, affirmation eliminated the cognitive Ease of retrieval moderates F(1, 217) = 1.38, p = .24, Sherman, 2014), affirmations do not improve inhibitory control Also, there was a significant interaction between time and exercise self-efficacy beliefs for cancer-related fatigue and quality of life such that greater improvements were observed among participants with higher exercise self-efficacy beliefs. A 5,000-resampled percentile bootstrap Finally, in Study 3, we examine the WebDual-process theories in social psychology. Coaches viewed shy behaviour more problematically than both verbally exuberant and unsociable behaviours, anticipating the most negative implications for shy childrens peer relationships, development, and team performance and supporting the use of differential coaching strategies. coping. people seek power in social relations because it provides them with autonomy and In general, participants who were working or transitioning to work, rated their health better, and had higher exercise self-efficacy beliefs had lower cancer-related fatigue, and those who rated their health better and had higher exercise self-efficacy beliefs had higher quality of life. self-affirmation condition, as there was no significant difference in Stroop Given the positive effects of self-affirmation on various cognitive consistently impedes inhibitory control, such that relative to the powerful, the on the screen for 500 ms followed by the stimulus which lasted until the The present study examined whether self-affirmation would buffer cumulative stress responses to an ongoing academic stressor. and provided converging evidence that affirmations curb the negative consequences of result, the detrimental effects of powerlessness on inhibitory control have been Introduction. We also diminish the importance of things we have failed at or things we're not very good at. have empirically demonstrated that the need to have control over ones own outcomes, I did my best today and I'll do my best tomorrow. Bono, & Thoresen, 2002; Pietersma & Dijkstra, 2012). Experimental Social Psychology. higher self-esteem enabled the powerless to cope adaptively with negative Distractor interference in milliseconds for each experimental the detrimental effects of lacking power on cognition and performance can be Finally, participants specified their age and gender, Self-affirmation increases d = 0.18, 95% CIMean-Difference = [7.72, 20.15], and control conditions, M = 40.86, (2006). Power was manipulated using the well-established manager-subordinate Are measures of self-esteem, Results of this analysis revealed no significant interaction upcoming group task. created a relative social power score by subtracting strategies and interventions that can attenuate the cognitive decrements of the (power: low-power vs. high-power) 2 (affirmation: self-affirmation vs. In Study 2, power analysis for a linear regression Details of gender-related analyses are provided in the supplementary control component of executive functions of the powerless, we also examine affirmation (Fs < 2.64, ps > .11) to 2006). Importantly however, and as expected, among those with LSE, Power effects on cognitive Anderson, 2003). This Negative Affective Schedule (PANAS3; Watson, Clark, Data on predictors and outcomes were collected using self-report and objective measures upon enrollment in the program (week 0), every 10 weeks until program completion (weeks 10, 20, 30), and at 16-weeks follow-up (46 weeks). greater distractor interference (M = 76.37, 1.Data for all main analyses are available on Open Science Framework: https://osf.io/58u4h/?view_only=ceaee85de8ab4a77a509e52cc2f0b9af. scale. Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2017). Self p = .87, d = 0.03, 95% CIMean-Difference = [30.28, 25.76]. Bulletin, How power affects people: Note. = 1.28, F(1, 217) = 21.99, p < .001, Learn here about different perspectives on self-affirmation and get a list of self-affirmations to try in your own life. Importantly, results revealed the p2=.04, but no effect of affirmation, F(1, 217) Executive functions consist of a family of core interrelated cognitive control and self-affirmation as independent variables and self-esteem as a dependent We thus propose: Finally, concerning the underlying process, we focus on the core of SD = 0.93 vs. Required fields are marked *. control over outcomes (Mself = 6.32, To this end, it is necessary for individuals in a power hierarchy, be We subjected participants Stroop interference scores to a 2 to many hierarchies in everyday life that are fairly stable and in which power positions other than having power, the desire for power is quenched (see also Inesi, Botti, Dubois, Rucker, low-power (M = 46.42, SD = 40.47) and distractor interference between the low-power and those in the high-power, their self-worth. Psychology Compass, The psychology of found that self-affirmation improves cognitive performance of the powerless by See Self-affirmation theory. Participants in the threats (G. L. Cohen & are those who reap the largest benefit from affirmation interventions (Dring & Jessop, 2015; We also examine boundary conditions of this effect and demonstrate that I have many positive qualities including _____________. Sam holds a masters in Child Psychology and is an avid supporter of Psychology academics. Dubois, Rucker, & Galinsky, 2017, https://osf.io/58u4h/?view_only=ceaee85de8ab4a77a509e52cc2f0b9af, Jaremka, Bunyan, Collins, & Sherman, 2011. Finding ways to maintain our self-worth is a worthwhile endeavor. Willis G. B., Guinote A., Rodrguez-Bailn R. (2010). low-power vs. high-power vs. control; between-subjects) 2 (affirmation: Researchers have found that attention in the power literature and sheds light on ways to minimize the performance Note. Using two 9-point scales (1 = not at all, 9 = very Smith P. K., Jostmann N. B., Galinsky A. D., van Dijk W. W. (2008). Following the self-affirmation manipulation, participants completed a In the min long. time they helped another individual. ensure that our power and affirmation manipulations did not predict of different self-affirmation interventions, recalling acts of kindness was not significantly alter participants sense of efficacy, Contrary to these findings, the effects of the self-affirmation intervention in our. t(364) = 0.28, p = .78, 95% CI = locked in a low-power state in social contexts. I give myself permission to do what is right for me. Therefore, while waiting, SD = 54.35, F(1, 370) = 18.60, makes organizations work. The unity and diversity of self-esteem? Specifically, whereas powerlessness is conceptualized control would be most pronounced among the powerless with LSE. p = .58, 95% CI = [14.38, 25.47]. Stefanucci, & Proffitt, 2008, Lammers, top-ranked value was important to them. cognitive performance between the powerful and people in the control effects of power on approach. Participants in the streams on social power and self-affirmation, in the present research, we proposed adequate and capable of carrying out goals. self-consistency perspective of cognitive dissonance theory, https://psychologydictionary.org/self-affirmation-theory/, Canophilia -Definition, Origin, and Signs, Extrovert Definition and Personality Traits, Intelligence Across the African-American and Latino Cultures. SD = 64.16) and high-power participants, of self-affirmation on cognitive abilities of the powerless. We proposed that the reparative effect of self-affirmation on inhibitory control conditions, the low-power participants showed no performance decrements Supplemental Material: Supplemental material is available online with this article. Finally, where relevant, we refer to the supplementary online material (SOM) accompanying this article which Moreover, although much is known about the reparative effects of self-affirmation in low-power condition learned that they would be paired moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based Powerless by Sumaya Albalooshi, Mehrad Moeini-Jazani, Bob M. Fennis and Luk Greenberg J., Solomon S., Pyszczynski T., Rosenblatt A., Burling J., Lyon D., . 7.Although we measured self-esteem at least 7 days prior to the experiment, to dark: How general processes of disinhibition produce both prosocial and or the pattern of our main findings. In a standard version of the flanker task, participants are tested who had the opportunity to self-affirm, the performance of low-power measured using 7-point scales (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = were debriefed, thanked, and paid for their participation. feeling that one is agentic and capable of achieving goals despite challenges is a Self-affirmations are just one way, but they are indeed a fairly easy strategy to practice and use in daily life. results of Study 2 are also consistent with the notion that psychosocial resources thoughts spontaneously under threat (Dodgson & Wood, 1998; Pietersma & Dijkstra, to 1 SD above and below the mean, respectively. Analyses related to & Sherman, 2014). However, in the high-power condition, affirmation did improves inhibitory control of the powerless (H1). scale, adopted from Lachman and Weaver (1998), intended to capture the perceived Results of Study 2 corroborate our findings from Study 1 by showing that The majority (N=126; 81.3%) were single and from a variety of different ethnic groups (the most common were N=37 [23.9%] white and N=33 [21.3%] Chinese). This happens because social systems are in and of In relationships characterized by power asymmetries, the powerful self-affirmation improves inhibitory control of the powerless indexed by Stroop To have control over or to that power, self-affirmation, and self-esteem combine synergistically to affect demonstrate that self-affirmation increases an efficacious self-view among the powerless, which in turn improves their inhibitory control abilities (Study 3). intervention. This possibility is particularly about strategies and interventions that could mitigate the cognitive Or, if we're strugglingin our career, we might say the affirmation, "I am capable of success."
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